Jerusalem's Importance in Early Islam
Unlike the Night Journey in 620 CE, the conquest of Jerusalem in 638, the completion of the Dome of the Rock in 691, and the Christian Crusades at the dawn of the 11th century – each occurring on a historical timeline from Muḥammad’s birth and thereafter – Ibrāhīm’s sacrifice occurred some 2,500 years before Muḥammad.[35] Therefore, this event is of special importance because it involves more than a historical understanding of Islam as it unfolded. By way of contrast it involves a sharp disagreement with the founding principles of both Judaism and Christianity, the two religions containing the same prophets that Muḥammad and Islam claim to supersede. Islam, Judaism, and Christianity agree that ﷲ or הָשֶׁם tested Ibrāhīm by commanding him to sacrifice his son. Ibrāhīm complied and bound his son for the sacrifice, but seconds from carrying out its conclusion, the angel Jabriel stayed Ibrāhīm's hand and the Lord held his oath fulfilled; he had passed the test. The disagreement is over the son he was commanded to sacrifice and the event's location.
According to Islam, ﷲ commanded Ibrāhīm to sacrifice Ismā˓īl —and this is no small matter because the Arab peoples[36] claim lineage from Ibrāhīm through the house of Ismā˓īl .[37] While tracing Arab genealogy to Ismā˓īl is as problematic as tracing Jewish genealogy to Isaac, the difference both in which son was chosen by ﷲ or הָשֶׁם and the location is paramount because it goes to the heart of both Jerusalem's and Mecca's earliest importance in the monotheistic religions. Jerusalem the most important place in Judaism as a direct result of the sacrificial episode. This same event is what makes Mecca the most important place in Islam.
The Selection of the Son
The Qur˒ān rarely mentions Ismā˓īl and never explicitly describes Ismā˓īl as the son ﷲ commanded Ibrāhīm to sacrifice. In making the case for Ismā˓īl, Sura 37:99-114 is very important:
He said, 'I am going to my Lord; He will guide me. My Lord, give me one of the righteous.' Then We gave him the good tidings of a prudent boy; and when he reached the age of running with him, he said, 'My son, I see in a dream that I shall sacrifice thee; consider, what thinkest thou?' He said, 'My father, do as thou art bidden; thou shalt find me, God willing, one of the steadfast.' When they had surrendered, and he flung him upon his brow, We called unto him, 'Ibrahim, thou hast confirmed the vision; even so We reward the good-doers. This indeed the manifest trial.' And We ransomed him with a mighty sacrifice, and left for him among the later folk 'Peace be upon Ibrahim!' Even so We reward the good-doers; he was among our believing servants. And We gave him the good tidings of Isaac, a prophet, one of the righteous. And we blessed him and Isaac; and of their seed some are good-doers, and some manifest self-wrongers.
It is interesting to note that in the only Sura of the Qur˒ān that specifically discusses the sacrifice, Ismā˓īl's name is absent while Isaac is specifically mentioned twice in the above quotation. The entire Sura spans 180 verses and mentions by name Ibrāhīm, Isaac, Noah, Moses, Aaron, and Jonah; but not Ismā˓īl . Modern day Islamic scholars, Muḥammad Ghoniem and M.S.M. Saifullah of islamic-awareness.org focus attention on the following lines from the Qur˒ān quoted above:
Then We gave him the good tidings of a prudent boy
فَبَشَّرُنَةُ بِغُلَمٍ حَلِيمٍ
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He said, 'My father, do as thou art bidden; thou shalt find me, God willing, one of the steadfast.'
سَتَجِدُ نِىٌ إِن شَآﺀ اﷲ مِنَ الصَّبِرِ ينَ
Ghoniem and Saifullah quote 37:112, "And we gave him the good tidings of Isaac, a prophet, one of the righteous;" and Sura 51:28, "they said, 'Be not afraid!' And they gave him good tidings of a cunning boy;" and Sura 21:85, "And Ishmael, Idris, Zulkifl—each was of the patient, and We admitted them into Our mercy; they were of the righteous." Their point is that in the Qur˒ān, Isḥāq is always associated with "good tidings" whereas Ismā˓īl is associated with "steadfastness" and "patience." They further argue that according to the above quoted chronology of Sura 37, "Then We gave him the good tidings of a prudent boy..." refers to the firstborn, Ismā˓īl ; and "...We gave him the good tidings of Isaac..." clearly refers to Ibrāhīm's second son, Isḥāq. These are two different forms of tidings.
The argument put forth by Ghoniem and Saifullah is problematic. In the above referenced Suras, Ismā˓īl's name appears only once—in Sura 21. The lens with which they explore the meaning of the phrase "good tidings" does not extend to an earlier point in Sura 21 where verse 69 begins by describing Ibrāhīm and the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah:
We said, 'O fire, be coolness and safety for Ibrahim!' They desired to outwit him; so We made them worse losers, and We delivered him, and Lot, unto the land that we had blessed for all beings. And We gave him Isaac and Jacob in superfluity, and every one We made righteous and appointed them to be leaders guiding by our command, and we revealed to them the doing of good deeds, and to perform the prayer, and to pay the alms, and Us they served.
It is strange that the one reference to Ismā˓īl declares that he is patient and is thus admitted into ﷲ's mercy, while throughout the Qur˒ān Isḥāq is consistently declared to be righteous and a prophet. Furthermore, the above Sura 21:69 lists Ibrāhīm's lineage and selects Isḥāq and his son Jacob as not only righteous leaders, but leaders to whom two of the five pillars of Islam (salat/prayer and zakah/alms) would be revealed. In contrast, Ismā˓īl became the father of 13 children[38] and none are mentioned in the Qur˒ān. If both Islam and Judaism agree that Ibrāhīm's sacrifice was a test whose outcome could determine the Lord's covenant, it would be odd that the test would include Ibrāhīm's less important son, be he patient and cunning or not.
Because this disagreement occurs 2,500 years before Muḥammad’s time and independent, critical, historical analysis is lacking, there are few sources to turn to gain answers. For a further explanation, one must look to the teachings of Islamic scholars because it is they who disagree with what was the accepted (albeit unproven) historical narrative. Ibn Kathir (1323–1373 CE) is to Islam, the Qur˒ān, and Hadith what Rashi (1040–1105 CE) is to Judaism, the Old Testament, and the Talmud. It is to his teachings that Ghoniem and Saifullah turn in order to make the case for Ismā˓īl.
In Ibn Kathir's tafsir of the Qur˒ān 37:101, entitled "So We gave him the good news of a forebearing son,"[39] he explains that Ismā˓īl is indeed Ibrāhīm's firstborn and that according to Jewish scripture in Genesis 22:2, Ibrāhīm is commanded to sacrifice his "only son." Ismā˓īl was Ibrāhīm's only son for over 13 years[40] and it is thus impossible that Isḥāq would be the one sacrificed. He explains that Jews, "inserted falsely the name of Isaac against the text of their very Scripture."[41]
The disagreement over the chosen son is not confined to arguments between Islamic and Judeo-Christian traditions; within Islam itself the matter has been a source of disagreement with scholars from the time of the Qur˒ān's canonization to modern-day Islamic scholars. Al-Tabari is considered to be among one of the premiere Islamic historians. In his book, "The History of al-Tabari: Prophets and Patriarchs, Vol. II," he describes the different views held among the Umma or community of Muslim scholars.
He makes the case that since Muslim's disagree over the choice of the son, and both statements are supported by Hadith related to Muḥammad, "only the Qur˒ān could serve as proof that the account naming Isaac is clearly more truthful of the two."[42] Additionally, according to al-Husayn b. Yazid al-Tahhan – Ibn Idris – Dawud b. Abi Hind – 'Ikrimah – Ibn 'Abbas: "The one whom Abraham was ordered to sacrifice was Isaac;" and according to Ya'qub – Ibn 'Ulayyah – Dawud – 'Ikrimah – Ibn 'Abbas: "The victim was Isaac."
While neither the Qur˒ān nor Hadith make a clear case for Ismā˓īl's selection, the Old Testament is very specific in the choice of Isaac
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Genesis 22:2 — And He said, 'Please take now your son, your only one, whom you love – Isaac – and go to the land of Moriah; bring him up there as an offering upon one of the mountains which I shall tell you.'
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ב וַיֹּאמֶר קַח–נָא אֶת–בִּנְךָ אֶת–יְחִידְךָ אֲשֶׁר–אָהַבְתָּ אֶת–יִצְחָק וְלֶךְ–לְךָ אֶל–אֶרֶץ הַמֹּרִיָּה וְהַעֲלֵהוּ שָׁם לְעֹלָה עַל אַחַד הֶהָרִים אֲשֶׁר אֹמַר אֵלֶיךָ: |
Likewise, in the New Testament, James 2:21 says: "Was not Abraham our father justified by works, when he offered up his son Isaac upon the altar?" What remains to be understood is Ibn Kathir's viewpoint in his tafsir on Sura 37:101, that it is "...a mere (farfetched) explanation since we never say 'only son' except to a person who has but one son. Moreover, the firstborn has a special place (in the heart of his father) that is not given to the following children and the order to sacrifice him is therefore a greater test."[43]
Kathir's tafsir, like the Qur˒ān and Hadith, do not mention important concepts and literal texts that are spelled-out specifically in the Torah. More importantly, the relevant texts and concepts in the Torah are so specific as to require no explanation from Rashi or other Judeo-Christian sources. In sum, they tackle five important issues:
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Isaac's importance to both הָשֶׁם and Abraham compared to Ismā˓īl.
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The importance of Abraham's wife, Sarah, over that of Hagar,[44] in הָשֶׁם's covenant with Abraham.
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Ismā˓īl's destiny and the esteem to which he will be held.
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Sarah's jealousy regarding Hagar and Ismā˓īl, and the reactions of both הָשֶׁם and Abraham.
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הָשֶׁם's constant reiteration that his covenant will be with Abraham through his son Isaac and his offspring.
The following are instructive verses from Genesis in the Old Testament:
| 16:1-3 — Now Sarai, Abram's[45] wife, had borne him no children. She had an Egyptian maidservent whose name was Hagar: And Sarai said to Abram, 'See, now, Hashem has restrained me from bearing; please, go in to my maidservent, perhaps I will obtain children though her.' And Abram heeded the voice of Sarai: And Sarai, Abram's wife took Hagar her maidservent, after Abram had lived ten years in the land of Canaan, and her to Abram, her husband. |
א וְשָׂרַי אֵשֶׁת אַבְרָם לֹא יָלְדָה לוֹ וְלָהּ שִׁפְחָה מִצְרִית וּשְׁמָהּ הָגָר: ב וַתֹּאמֶר שָׂרַי אֶל–אַבְרָם הִנֵּה–נָא עֲצָרַנִי יְהוָֹה מִלֶּדֶת בֹּא–נָא אֶל–שִׁפְחָתִי אוּלַי אִבָּנֶה מִמֶּנָּה וַיִּשְׁמַע אַבְרָם לְקוֹל שָׂרָי: ג וַתִּקַּח שָׂרַי | אֵשֶׁת אַבְרָם אֶת–הָגָר הַמִּצְרִית שִׁפְחָתָהּ מִקֵּץ עֶשֶׂר שָׁנִים לְשֶׁבֶת אַבְרָם בְּאֶרֶץ כְּנָעַן וַתִּתֵּן אֹתָהּ לְאַבְרָם אִישָׁהּ לוֹ לְאִשָּׁה: |
| 16:11-12 — And an angel of Hashem said to her [Hagar], 'Behold, you will conceive, and give birth to a son; you shall name him Ishmael, for Hashem has heard your prayer: And he shall be a wild man; his hand against everyone, and everyone's hand against him; and he shall live in the presence of his bothers. | יא וַיֹּאמֶר לָהּ מַלְאַךְ יְהֹוָה הִנָּךְ הָרָה וְיֹלַדְתְּ בֵּן וְקָרָאת שְׁמוֹ יִשְׁמָעֵאל כִּי–שָׁמַע יְהוָֹה אֶל–עָנְיֵךְ: יב וְהוּא יִהְיֶה פֶּרֶא אָדָם יָדוֹ בַכֹּל וְיַד כֹּל בּוֹ וְעַל–פְּנֵי כָל–אֶחָיו יִשְׁכֹּן: |
| 17:15-16 — And God said to Abraham, 'as for Sarai your wife–do not call her Sarai, for Sarah is her name: And I will bless her; indeed, I will give you a son through her; I will bless her and she shall give rise to nations; kings of peoples will rise from her:' | טו וַיֹּאמֶר אֱלֹהִים אֶל–אַבְרָהָם שָׂרַי אִשְׁתְּךָ לֹא–תִקְרָא אֶת–שְׁמָהּ שָׂרָי כִּי שָׂרָה שְׁמָהּ: טז וּבֵרַכְתִּי אֹתָהּ וְגַם נָתַתִּי מִמֶּנָּה לְךָ בֵּן וּבֵרַכְתִּיהָ וְהָיְתָה לְגוֹיִם מַלְכֵי עַמִּים מִמֶּנָּה יִהְיוּ: |
| 17:19-21 — God said, 'Sarah your wife will bear you a son and you shall call his name Isaac; and I will fulfill My covenant with him as an everlasting covenant for his offspring after him: But regarding Ishmael I have heard you; I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; he will beget twelve princes and I will make him into a great nation: But I will maintain My covenant through Isaac, whom Sarah will bear to you by this time next year:' | יט וַיֹּאמֶר אֱלֹהִים אֲבָל שָׂרָה אִשְׁתְּךָ יֹלֶדֶת לְךָ בֵּן וְקָרָאתָ אֶת–שְׁמוֹ יִצְחָק וַהֲקִמֹתִי אֶת–בְּרִיתִי אִתּוֹ לִבְרִית עוֹלָם לְזַרְעוֹ אַחֲרָיו: כ וּלְיִשְׁמָעֵאל שְׁמַעְתִּיךָ הִנֵּה | בֵּרַכְתִּי אֹתוֹ וְהִפְרֵיתִי אֹתוֹ וְהִרְבֵּיתִי אֹתוֹ בִּמְאֹד מְאֹד שְׁנֵים–עָשָׂר נְשִׂיאִם יוֹלִיד וּנְתַתִּיו לְגוֹי גָּדוֹל: כא וְאֶת–בְּרִיתִי אָקִים אֶת–יִצְחָק אֲשֶׁר תֵּלֵד לְךָ שָׂרָה לַמּוֹעֵד הַזֶּה בַּשָּׁנָה הָאַחֶרֶת: |
| 21:5 — And Abraham was a hundred years old when his son, Isaac, was borne unto him: | ה וְאַבְרָהָם בֶּן–מְאַת שָׁנָה בְּהִוָּלֶד לוֹ אֵת יִצְחָק בְּנוֹ: |
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21:9-13 — Sarah saw the son of Hagar, the Egyptian, whom she had borne to Abraham, mocking: So she said to Abraham, 'Drive out this slavewoman with her son, for the son of that slave woman shall not inherit with my son, with Isaac!' The matter greatly distressed Abraham regarding his son: So God said to Abraham, 'Be not distressed, Abraham, regarding the lad and your slavewoman: Whatever Sarah tells you, heed her voice, for through Isaac will I consider offspring to be yours: But the son of the slavewoman as well will I make into a nation for he is your offspring:' |
ט וַתֵּרֶא שָׂרָה אֶת–בֶּן–הָגָר הַמִּצְרִית אֲשֶׁר–יָלְדָה לְאַבְרָהָם מְצַחֵק: י וַתֹּאמֶר לְאַבְרָהָם גָּרֵשׁ הָאָמָה הַזֹּאת וְאֶת–בְּנָהּ כִּי לֹא יִירַשׁ בֶּן–הָאָמָה הַזֹּאת עִם–בְּנִי עִם–יִצְחָק: יא וַיֵּרַע הַדָּבָר מְאֹד בְּעֵינֵי אַבְרָהָם עַל אוֹדֹת בְּנוֹ: יב וַיֹּאמֶר אֱלֹהִים אֶל–אַבְרָהָם אַל–יֵרַע בְּעֵינֶיךָ עַל–הַנַּעַר וְעַל–אֲמָתֶךָ כֹּל אֲשֶׁר תֹּאמַר אֵלֶיךָ שָׂרָה שְׁמַע בְּקֹלָהּ כִּי בְיִצְחָק יִקָּרֵא לְךָ זָרַע: יג וְגַם אֶת–בֶּן–הָאָמָה לְגוֹי אֲשִׂימֶנּוּ כִּי זַרְעֲךָ הוּא: |
| 22:2 — And He said, 'Please take now your son, your only one, whom you love – Isaac – and go to the land of Moriah; bring him up there as an offering upon one of the mountains which I shall tell you.' | ב וַיֹּאמֶר קַח–נָא אֶת–בִּנְךָ אֶת–יְחִידְךָ אֲשֶׁר–אָהַבְתָּ אֶת–יִצְחָק וְלֶךְ–לְךָ אֶל–אֶרֶץ הַמֹּרִיָּה וְהַעֲלֵהוּ שָׁם לְעֹלָה עַל אַחַד הֶהָרִים אֲשֶׁר אֹמַר אֵלֶיךָ: |
The above verses from the Torah are quite specific. Ibn Kathir over-emphasizes the fact that Ismā˓īl is Ibrāhīm's firstborn. While it is true that in Judaism there is a special relationship between a father and his firstborn, Ibn Kathir's exegesis ignores that not only was Ismā˓īl passed over in favor of Isaac, but that Isaac's firstborn son, Esau, was passed over by his brother, Jacob.[46]
Islamic scholarship has also failed to understand what was meant in Genesis 22:2 by "only son" or "unique son." It is precisely because הָשֶׁם says in Genesis 21:12 "...through Isaac will I consider offspring to be yours..." that Isaac is considered "...your son, your only one, that you love..." Moreover, chronologically, Hagar and Ismā˓īl were sent away in chapter 21 of Genesis. Abraham received the test to sacrifice his son in chapter 22. Therefore, Isaac could be considered Abraham's "only son" by virtue of the fact that at that time he only had one son living with him. Furthermore, the Qur˒ān, Hadith, and Islamic scholarship are silent in regard to the circular mirror of Ismā˓īl and Esau; that the second-born was twice selected in two consecutive generations;[47] that the fate of Ismā˓īl and Esau are forever bound together as Esau married Mahalath, Ismā˓īl's only daughter.
Location, Location, Location
Islam is the perfect continuation and 'seal' of the monotheistic faiths that proceeded it; therefore, understanding the fundamental tenet that founded 'The Covenant' upon which Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are based, is essential Jerusalem's importance. If this is the case, it is as important to establish the location of the sacrifice, as it is to decide upon who was sacrificed. According to Islam the sacrifice took place in the vicinity of Mecca.
The Hajj
One of the Five Pillars of Islam is making the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca (in modern-day Saudi Arabia). This event, known as the Hajj was established by Muḥammad in 628 CE, two years before Mecca capitulated - four years before Muḥammad's death. Just as Jews view Jerusalem as the center of the earth, Muslims, view Mecca as the center. The "Great Mosque" or "Sacred Mosque" or Al-Masjid al-Haram inside Mecca contains the Ka˓ba, the holiest place in Islam. The cube-shaped structure[48] is covered by an elaborate, hanging cloth called the Kiswa. In the eastern corner of the Ka˓ba is The Black Stone, or Hajar al-Aswad. Islamic tradition has it that this stone was given to Adam upon his expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Other Islamic traditions claim that the stone was originally white but turned black because it absorbed all of the sins of the pilgrims throughout the years. Yet another tradition claims that Hajar al-Aswad is a part of a meteor as it resembles no stone found in the Near East.
Aside from the Ka˓ba's Islamic association with Adam, what is of special importance is what is written in Sura 2:125 and 2:127 of the Qur˒ān:
2:125 – And when We appointed the House to be a place of visitation for the people, and a sanctuary, and: 'Take to yourselves Abraham's station for a place for prayer.' And We made covenant with Abraham and Ishmael: 'Purify My House for those that shall go about it and those that cleave to it, to those who bow and prostrate themselves.'
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2:127 – And when Abraham, and Ishmael with him, raised up the foundation of the House: 'Our Lord, receive this from us; thou art the All-hearing, the All-knowing.'
This would mean that at some point between Genesis 16:15 (when Ismā˓īl was born) and Genesis 25:8 (when Abraham died), he and Ismā˓īl built the Ka˓ba in Mecca. The very early history of the Ka˓ba is somewhat obscured. By the time of Muḥammad's birth in 570 CE, the Ka˓ba was a site of pilgrimage for the largely pagan population throughout the Arabian Peninsula. In Islamic Hadith,[49] Sura 2:127 of the Qur˒ān refers to Ibrāhīm and Ismā˓īl rebuilding the shrine first built by Adam. Because, according to Islam, Ibrāhīm (the father of Islam) rebuilt the Ka˓ba with Ismā˓īl (the father of the Arab peoples and the one who was selected for the sacrifice), it is the holiest place in Islam.
During one of the stations of the Hajj a pilgrim or Hajjiyya runs between the hilltops of Safa and Marwah, thus commemorating Hajar being sent away with Ismā˓īl by Ibrāhīm and Sarah. In Islamic tradition, Hajar frantically ran between these two points in her quest for water. It also is tradition for a Hajjiyya to stop by the well of Zamzam—the well that ﷲ mercifully created for Hajar and Ismā˓īl when he heard their plea. In the Torah, Hagar is sent away twice; once before Ismā˓īl was born and once thereafter. Since Hadith[50] claims that Ismā˓īl was with Hajar, one can assume that this expulsion is the one referred to in Genesis 21:9–13.
According to the same Hadith, it is after the well of Zamzam is created in Mecca, that ﷲ reveals that Ibrāhīm and Ismā˓īl will build the Ka˓ba. When the Ka˓ba was rebuilt is covered neither by the Qur˒ān or Hadith. The Hadith continues:
The Prophet further said, "Ishmael's mother was pleased with the whole situation as she used to love to enjoy the company of the people. So, they settled there, and later on they sent for their families who came and settled with them so that some families became permanent residents there. The child (i.e. Ishmael) grew up and learnt Arabic from them and (his virtues) caused them to love and admire him as he grew up, and when he reached the age of puberty they made him marry a woman from amongst them."[51]
It is odd that Ismā˓īl, who is the father of Arabs, learns to speak Arabic from other Arabs.
During the Hajj many pilgrims also stop by the city of Medina to visit Muḥammad's tomb, who was interned beside two of the four "Rightly Guided Caliphs:"[52] Abu Bakr, the first Caliph after Muḥammad, and Umar, the second Caliph who captured Jerusalem in 638. It also is customary to stop by the city of Mina outside of Mecca. Many believe that it was there that Ibrāhīm was to sacrifice Ismā˓īl.
In Mina, a Hajjiyya participates in the symbolic stoning of the devil. This is done by pelting pebbles[53] collected from the ground on the plain of Muzdalifah at the three pillars at Mina. The three pillars, from largest to smallest, represent the following occasions of the devil:
- Where Shytan (Arabic for Satan) tempted Ibrāhīm to not sacrifice Ismā˓īl.
- Where Shytan tempted Hajar to stop Ibrāhīm from making the sacrifice.
- Where Shytan tempted Ismā˓īl to evade the sacrifice.
In each of these instances Shytan was rebuffed; the stoning of the three pillars represents the rebuke. The Torah is very specific about where, when and why Abraham traveled. While dozens of places are mentioned, the Arabian peninsula or the Hijaz is not mentioned or eluded to once. There certainly is no mention of hefty building projects undertaken by Abraham and Ismā˓īl during the 14 years before Isaac or thereafter.
Ibn Kathir and other Islamic scholars might argue that Jews not only maliciously switched the names of Ismā˓īl and Isaac but that they erased all mention of Mecca and the Hijaz. While this would indeed be a fantastic conspiracy theory, it still wouldn't explain what motive Jews would have had to canonize this in their Old Testament at least five centuries before the birth of Muḥammad.
Conclusion
The reason that the issue of which son was to be sacrificed and the event’s location is so important is because from a religious perspective, if Ismā˓īl was the chosen son and he was to be sacrificed near Mecca, then the primary reason that the Jews built two temples in Jerusalem is false.
If Al-Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem is not where Ibrāhīm made the sacrifice, then Moses led the Jews from Egypt to a promised land—not the holy land. The idea was to build the Temple where Abraham was sent to sacrifice Isaac. Therefore, the place where Jews should have built their Temples was near Mecca. If the Temples should have been built outside of Mecca, shouldn’t Islam consider Jerusalem to be a place not only unimportant and unholy, but a place that misguided Jews and Christians alike hold in mistaken high esteem? Wouldn’t Jerusalem be considered a place where the “People of the Book” were led astray?
The sacrificial episode was irrelevant during Muḥammad's time. The debate occurred centuries later when Arabs decided to retroactively pin their decendancy to Ismā˓īl in an effort explain their supremacy over the many other types of people who fell within the expanding Islamic empire. For political reasons, Ismā˓īl was selected because all of the other Jewish forefathers and foremothers (Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah) could be discounted as non-Arab.
At the time, it would be politically difficult to explain to an empire comprised of many Jews, Christians, and pagans from many differing genealogical pools that all Jewish and Christian prophets were Arabs. It is interesting to note that from this retroactive selection of Ismā˓īl, today the tale has been twisted far enough in the political realm to claim that Jesus and Moses were Arabs.
Political expediency has often trumped historical reality.
[35] The era of Abraham, Isaac, and Ismail took place between 1850-1700 BCE.
[36] See: Hourani, Albert H. A History of the Arab Peoples, Faber & Faber: London, 2002.
[37] See: "Sons of Ismail" in Genesis 25:13-16 and 1 Chronicles 1:29-31 and: I. Ephal's "'Ishmael' and 'Arab(s)': A Transformation of Ethnological Terms," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, (35/4), 1976, pp. 225-235.
[38] Ismā˓īl fathered 12 sons and one daughter.
[39] Abul-Fidâ' Ismâcîl Ibn Kathîr ad-Dimishqî, Tafsîr Ibn Kathîr.
[40] See: Genesis 16:16 and 21:5
[41] Abul-Fidâ' Ismâcîl Ibn Kathîr ad-Dimishqî, Tafsîr Ibn Kathîr.
[42] al-Tabari. The History of al-Tabari: Prophets and Patriarchs, Vol II, (trans. William M. Brenner), Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987, p. 82.
[43] Abul-Fidâ' Ismâcîl Ibn Kathîr ad-Dimishqî, Tafsîr Ibn Kathîr.
[44] Hagar is Hajar in Arabic. She is Ismā˓īl's mother and Abraham and Sarah's maid/slave/concubine (depending on the narrative structure of the specific Torah verse) from Egypt.
[45] According to the Torah, הָשֶׁם changes both Abram and Sarai's name to Abraham and Sarah respectively in Genesis 17:5 and 17:15.
[46] See Genesis 25:25–27:46.
[47] Isaac blessed Jacob, his second-born.
[48] The Ka˓ba is roughly 50ft/15m high, and it's base is roughly 35ft/10m x 40ft/14m.
[49] Hadith Source: Sahih al-Bukhari, Narrated by: Ibn Abass, Volume 4, Book 55, Number 583 and 584.
[50] Ibid.
[51] Hadith Source: Sahih al-Bukhari, Narrated by: Ibn Abass, Volume 4, Book 55, Number 583.
[52] The four Rightly Guided Caliphs or Rashidun (632–661 CE), were Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. They ruled the expanding "Islamic Kingdom" after Muhammad's death in 632 CE.
[53] There are various accounts of the number of pebbles to be collected. Many Hajj accounts list between 49 and 70.