Jerusalem's Importance in Early Islam
Chronologically, Muḥammad’s Night Journey and Ascension are the earliest events in Islam pertaining to Jerusalem. Sura 17:1 of the Qur˒ān tells the story:
"Glory be to Him, who carried His servant by night from the Holy Mosque to the Further Mosque the precincts of which We have blessed, that We might show him some of Our signs. He is the All-hearing, All-seeing."[10] ("Subḥana al-ladhi asra bi˓bdihi laīlan mina al-masjidi al-ḥarami ila al-masjidi alaqṣā, al-adhi baraknā ḥawlaū linuriyaū min 'ayatinā inaū huwa al-samī˓u al-baṣīru")
Yusif Ali: Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things). Pickhal: Glorified be He Who carried His servant by night from the Inviolable Place of Worship to the Far distant place of worship the neighbourhood whereof We have blessed, that We might show him of Our tokens! Lo! He, only He, is the Hearer, the Seer. Shakir: Glory be to Him Who made His servant to go on a night from the Sacred Mosque to the remote mosque of which We have blessed the precincts, so that We may show to him some of Our signs; surely He is the Hearing, the Seeing.
The above story of al-Isra—Muḥammad's night journey is said to have occurred in 620 CE. This event is one of the most significant events during the life of Muḥammad, occurring two years before his migration from Mecca to Medina. At the time, he was early in his mission, gaining converts from Mecca. However, as his local support grew, his relations with the leading Meccan families began to deteriorate. The debate on the Night Journey is over the destination to which he traveled. It is problematic that in the above Sura, the word “Jerusalem” does not appear. Even more problematic is that in the entire Qur˒ān "Jerusalem"
(اورشاليم) or "al-Quds" (أَلْقُدْس) or any of its common biblical variations, are never used. Additionally, the accepted story of the Night Journey and Ascension involves many events that are not mentioned in the Qur˒ān.
According to Islamic traditionalists, Muḥammad journeyed from the Ka˓ba in Mecca via a winged-steed, al-Buraq (the lightening), guided by the angel Jabriel to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.[12] There he ascended through the seven layers of heaven and preached to Yasu˓a, Musa, and Ibrāhīm. While in heaven Muḥammad negotiated with ﷲ to reach agreement over the number of times per day a Muslim should pray. ﷲ suggested 20 times but Muḥammad bargained the number down to five. Thus Salat, one of the Five Pillars of Islam was created. After leading the previous prophets in prayer he returned home on his winged-steed.
Because this story does not appear in the Qur˒ān, the words selected in Sura 17 referring to Muḥammad’s point of departure and his destination are paramount. The important words to a linguist in the above Sura 17:1 are "al-masjidi al-ḥarami ila al-masjidi al-aqṣā." In Arabic, "masjid" ( مَسْجِد ) means "place of worship." "Haram" ( حرم ) means "sanctuary." "Aqṣā"
أَقْصَا)) means "Furthest." Upon these words 1,500 years of debate ensued.
أَقْصَا)) means "Furthest." Upon these words 1,500 years of debate ensued.
It is largely accepted that al-Masjid al-Haram ( المَسْجِدالحَرَم ) refers to the Ka˓ba in Mecca. The phrase, al-Masjid al-Haram appears in seven Suras and 15 verses.[13] These verses specifically mention it as the Qibla, or direction of prayer. By way of contrast, al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the furthest place of worship — المَسْجِد الأَقْصاَ ) is only mentioned once—in the above Sura 17:1 and in its Qur˒ānic context, one cannot discern the destination of Muḥammad's Night Journey.
One must turn to Islamic scholars and Hadith. Abdallah El-Khatib from the University of Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates sheds light on the issue in an essay entitled, "Jerusalem in the Qur˒ān."[14] In his paper, he divides the possible verses that relate to Jerusalem into three categories: 1) unambiguous references, 2) ambiguous but likely references, and 3) ambiguous and unlikely references. To reach his conclusions, he relies heavily on "various sources of exegeses, hadith, history, and geography."[15]
According to El-Khatib, Sura 17:1 is the only verse in the Qur˒ān that falls into the "unambiguous reference" category. In the "ambiguous but likely category" he finds around 70 references scattered throughout 21 Suras by drawing on phrases such as, 1) The Holy Land (alard al-muqaddasa); 2) The Blessed Land (bilad al-ard); and 3) The Blessed Towns (bilad alqarya), which occur in Suras 5:21, 7:137, 21:71, 21:81, and 34:18. Because the unambiguous reference to Jerusalem in 17:1 also explicitly contains ﷲs blessing of the city and surrounding area, and because Jerusalem is the most essential part of it, each of the above Suras must "likely" be referring to Jerusalem.
El-Khatib's arguments are problematic because if one includes every reference he uses in both the "unambiguous, and ambiguous but likely" categories, one discovers that apparently, only Jerusalem and the land around it is sacred, leaving only the specific site of the Ka˓ba in the Qur˒ān as holy in the Arabian Peninsula. As a result, the second holiest city in Islam - Medina - falls by the wayside. In making his case that these references refer specifically to Jerusalem and not Mecca he emphasizes the tafsir (exegesis) of Al-Tabari:
Al-Tabari totally rejected the interpretation which regards the blessed land here as referring to Mecca because Mecca was never a residence to Abraham. Instead, al-Tabari preferred the view which regards the land referred to here as al-Sham, especially Jerusalem and its Rock because it was a domicile to Abraham after his immigration from Iraq.[16]
This argument does not create added weight to the case for Jerusalem. On the other hand, it essentially refutes: 1) the Islamic claim to Ibrāhīm's sacrifice of Ismā˓īl; 2) the building of the Ka˓ba, and; 3) the Hajj as one of five Pillars of Islam.
Left out of El-Khatib's exegesis is that during the time of the Night Journey (620 CE) there was no Bayt al-Maqdis in Jerusalem. The second Jewish temple was destroyed by Titus and the Romans in 70 CE; Jerusalem fell under Muslim control 638 CE - 18 years after Muḥammad's Night Journey. There was no structure on the Temple Mount with the name, al-Aqsa, until 711 CE, which was 91 years after the Night Journey. By 711 CE, the Rashidun or four Rightly Guided Caliphs were dead (all were assassinated with the exception of Abu Bakr) and the Caliphate had moved from the Arabian Peninsula to Damascus in modern-day Syria.
The span of 79 years between Muḥammad's death and the erection of both Qubbat al-Sakhra ( قبة الصخرة – the Dome of the Rock) and Al-Aqsa Mosque were the most tumultuous years in early Islam. During this period the schism of Sunni versus Shia Islam developed, the Qur˒ān was canonized, religious scholars who would later become basis of Hadith began pontificating, and the internal struggle for the right Caliph in the right location began.
Night Jouney and Ascension, or Night Journey then Ascension?
Other problems persists when exploring Muḥammad's Night Journey in the Qur˒ān. Sura 17:1 discusses al-Isra—that is, the actual nocturnal journey but mentions nothing about al-Miraj, Muḥammad's Ascension. Early Muslim scholars long debated whether these two events occurred on the same night.
Since the Qur˒ān is the actual word of ﷲ told in a first-person narrative, it is mystifying that this clarification was not imparted to Muḥammad. Beyond the issue of destination in the Night Journey lay the early Islamic debate over whether such a journey and ascension was physical or spiritual in nature. In addition, other items included in the narrative of the Night Journey remain unexplained in the Qur˒ān, such as al-Buraq (the lightning) - the winged-steed that Muḥammad straddled during his nocturnal and physical journey.
Muḥammad only claimed to have performed one miracle—the transmission of ﷲs words that later became the Qur˒ān. Physical night journeys on winged-steeds and physical ascensions through heaven must be considered miraculous by anyone's account.
El-Khatib explains that, "...the nocturnal journey, isra, to Jerusalem was one year before the hijra and there is great support amongst Muslim exegetes, traditionalists (muhaddithun), historians, as well as geographers for the view that the Prophetic nocturnal journey was to Jerusalem first, and that the ascension of the Prophet Muḥammad to heaven (miraj) started from Jerusalem, from al-Sakhra, known now as Qubbat al-Sakhra (the Dome of the Rock), during the same night of isra."[17] However, in making his case for the Night Journey and Ascension occurring on the same night, he only footnotes Sura 17:60 and 53:7–18.
The following are four translations of Sura 17:60 (italics added):
Arthur J. Arberry: And when We said to thee, 'Surely thy lord encompasses men,' and We made the vision that We showed thee and the tree cursed in the Koran to be only a trial for men; and We frighten them, but it only increases them in great insolence. Yusuf Ali: Behold! We told thee that thy Lord doth encompass mankind round about: We granted the vision which We showed thee, but as a trial for men,- as also the Cursed Tree (mentioned) in the Qur'an: We put terror (and warning) into them, but it only increases their inordinate transgression! Pickthal: And (it was a warning) when we told thee: Lo! thy Lord encompasseth mankind, and We appointed the sight which We showed thee as an ordeal for mankind, and (likewise) the Accursed Tree in the Qur'an. We warn them, but it increaseth them in naught save gross impiety. Shakir: And when We said to you: Surely your Lord encompasses men; and We did not make the vision which We showed you but a trial for men and the cursed tree in the Quran as well; and We cause them to fear, but it only adds to their great inordinacy.
The following are four translations of Sura 53:4–18 (italics added):
Arthur J. Arberry: This is naught but a revelation revealed, taught him by one terrible in power, very strong; he stood poised, being on a higher horizon, then he drew near and suspended hung, two bows'-length away, or nearer, then revealed to his servant that he revealed. His heart lies not of what he saw; what will you dispute with him what he sees? Indeed, he saw him another time by the Lote-Tree that which covered; his eye swerved not, nor swept astray. Indeed, he saw one of the greatest signs of his Lord. Yusuf Ali: It is no less than inspiration sent down to him: He was taught by one Mighty in Power. Endued with Wisdom: for he appeared (in stately form); While he was in the highest part of the horizon: Then he approached and came closer, And was at a distance of but two bow-lengths or (even) nearer; So did (Allah) convey the inspiration to His Servant- (conveyed) what He (meant) to convey. The (Prophet's) (mind and) heart in no way falsified that which he saw. Will ye then dispute with him concerning what he saw? For indeed he saw him at a second descent, Near the Lote-tree beyond which none may pass: Near it is the Garden of Abode. Behold, the Lote-tree was shrouded (in mystery unspeakable!) (His) sight never swerved, nor did it go wrong! For truly did he see, of the Signs of his Lord, the Greatest! Pickthal: It is naught save an inspiration that is inspired, Which one of mighty powers hath taught him, One vigorous; and he grew clear to view. When he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down Till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer, And He revealed unto His slave that which He revealed. The heart lied not (in seeing) what it saw. Will ye then dispute with him concerning what he seeth? And verily he saw him yet another time. By the lote-tree of the utmost boundary, Nigh unto which is the Garden of Abode. When that which shroudeth did enshroud the lote-tree, The eye turned not aside nor yet was overbold. Verily he saw one of the greater revelations of his Lord. Shakir: It is naught but revelation that is revealed, The Lord of Mighty Power has taught him, The Lord of Strength; so he attained completion, And he is in the highest part of the horizon. Then he drew near, then he bowed So he was the measure of two bows or closer still. And He revealed to His servant what He revealed. The heart was not untrue in (making him see) what he saw. What! do you then dispute with him as to what he saw? And certainly he saw him in another descent, At the farthest lote-tree; At the farthest lote-tree; Near which is the garden, the place to be resorted to. When that which covers covered the lote-tree; The eye did not turn aside, nor did it exceed the limit. Certainly he saw of the greatest signs of his Lord.
The very same Qur˒ānic verses El-Khatib quotes to demonstrate that al-Isra and al-Miraj occured on the same night expose the exact opposite.
All four translations agree that the Night Journey was a vision or revelation - as opposed to a physical journey - and that Muḥammad was seen another time where ﷲ displayed for him the greatest thing. The first vision or revelation must be the Night Journey. Certainly, the second time Muḥammad was seen would be the Ascension as it is referred to as the greatest sight - and it would be hard to top a journey through heaven. The above verses also conveniently come with a caveat to prevent anyone from questioning Muḥammad (i.e: will you dispute with him what he sees?).
The Qur˒ān also makes no mention of Muḥammad's winged-steed, al-Buraq. Few hadiths tackle Muḥammad's transportation. The following is narrated by Abbas bin Malik, in the Hadith of Sahih al-Bukhari:
Then a white animal which was smaller than a mule and bigger than a donkey was brought to me." (On this Al-Jarud asked, "Was it the Buraq, O Abu Hamza?" I (i.e. Anas) replied in the affirmative). The Prophet said, "The animal's step (was so wide that it) reached the farthest point within the reach of the animal's sight. I was carried on it, and Gabriel set out with me till we reached the nearest heaven.[18]
Sahih Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj contains the following hadith:
I was brought al-Buraq Who is an animal white and long, larger than a donkey but smaller than a mule, who would place his hoof a distance equal to the range of vision. I mounted it and came to the Temple (Bait Maqdis in Jerusalem), then tethered it to the ring used by the prophets. I entered the mosque and prayed two rak'ahs in it, and then came out and Gabriel brought me a vessel of wine and a vessel of milk. I chose the milk, and Gabriel said: You have chosen the natural thing. Then he took me to heaven.[19]
Other hadiths further confuse the issue by describing the actual mosque of the Night Journey as the one built on the Temple Mount in 691 by Abd al-Malik—71 years after the miraculous evening.
Conclusions
Both the Qur˒ān and hadith leave plenty of room to question whether the Night Journey and Acension occured at the same time or separately, and whether the two events were physical or spiritual in nature. Furthermore, if such a journey physicially took place, it is debatable - if not improbable - that Jerusalem was the destination.
[10] Arberry, A.J. The Koran Interpreted, Simon & Shuster: New York, 1955, p. 302.
[11] MSA-University of Southern California, Islamic Server & Database: http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/017.qmt.html#017.001
[12] The idea of al-Buraq became cemented in 14th century Persian art; Jabriel in Arabic, is Gavriel in Hebrew, and Gabriel in English.
[13] See Qur˒ān: 2:144, 2:149, 2:150, 2:191, 2:196, 2:217, 5:2, 8:34, 9:7, 9:19, 9:28, 17:1, 22:25, 48:25, 48:27.
[14] El-Khatib, Abdallah, "Jerusalem in the Qur˒ān," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, (28/1), pp. 25-53.
[15] Ibid p. 25.
[16] Ibid p. 38.
[17] Ibid p. 34.
[18] Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 5, Book 58, Number 227. This hadith and Sahih al-Muslim, Book 1, Number 309 in their entirety provides the most vivid account of the Night Journey and Ascension.
[19] Sahih al-Muslim, Book 1, Number 309